Luffness: Chapter 7

Medieval Luffness: Part Two

The Rough Wooing

Let us start this section with a 'Rough Guide' to Rough Wooing.

James V was succeed in 1542 by his infant daughter, Mary (1542-67). Henry VIII of England sought, the marriage of Mary to his young son, who later become Edward VI. Edward was the last Tudor child and his marriage to Mary would secure the Scottish crown and isolate the French from alliance with Scotland. This marriage would also stop a Catholic Stewart claim on the English throne if the Tudor line was to die out. It was agreed in the treatise of Greenwich in July 1543ⁱ that Mary would be betrothed before she was 10 and thereafter brought up in England. The Scottish Parliament in December 1543 rejected this and. Henry resorted to military pressure. He began a series of bloody raids into Scotland, which became known as the 'Rough Wooing'. These only drove the Scots into a closer alliance with France. Henry VIII died in January 1547 and was succeeded by his son Edward VI. Edward was still a young boy and therefore his uncle Edward Seymour, 1st duke of Somerset(c. 1500–52) was made Lord Protector of England during the the King's minority.

Somerset pursued the claim that Mary would marry Edward and this pursuit of alliance saw the English and Scottish armies meeting at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh on September 10^th 1547. Somerset led the English to victory in the last major battle between England and Scotland. This was the first time in Britain that gunpowder weapons proved decisive in the outcome of a battle; it was also the first time that artillery, infantry, cavalry and naval support had combined in an actionⁱⁱ.

Haddington

The English could not consolidate their victory at Pinkie and retreated. However, in the spring of 1548 they returned to Scotland with an army under Lord Grey of Wilton, Governor of Berwick. The English seized strong points in southern Scotland and began a very expensive scheme of building fortifications through out the south from which they could control the area. As part of this tactic they took the strategic town of Haddington and immediately fortified it.

We should remember that this would have been a horrific period of time to live in the south of Scotland with the English and assured Scots terrorising the area. Evidence of this campaign of intimidation can be found in the letters that were sent between Grey of Wilton and Somerset. At this time it was thought that the French invasion was imminent and Grey of Wilton was destroying any place that could prove useful to them; as he reported to Somerset on June 4^th 1548 ⁱⁱⁱ:

'....minding this night to destroy some places which might serve the Frenchmen on their coming...'^iv.

On the 9^th Grey wrote to Somerset to report the destruction that was being carried out along the coast from Musselburgh:

'As we left Muskulborough unburnt when Dalkeith was taken, I sent thither Francis Aslaby on the 7th, who burned the town and mills, and all the fisher villages near the sea, leaving untouched only the church upon the hill, driving also many beasts, to the utter ruin of that country'^v.

It was probably at this time that Luffness castle was slighted.

Aberlady: The Port of Haddington

At this point the English were able to resupply the fort at Haddington from the port at Aberlady. Thomas Fisher the Secretary to Somerset gave instructions for the English ships in the Firth of Forth to intercept ships in the Firth of Forth and to bring food or provisions to the port at Aberlady^vi. This was obviously happening as Grey of Wilton reported to Somerset that they were:

'...bringing victuals from Aberlady, biscuits and faggots on horseback..'^vii.

Therefore if the English were able to resupply from Aberlady then it must have meant that Luffness castle was either in their possession and protecting their landings or that it had already been put out of action and could form no threat to them. I think the latter is probably the case. However, Luffness castle was soon to see a new period of occupation and building work but this time it would be by the French.

The French and fort building

The Scots turned to their old ally France to counteract the English aggression. The French king, Henri II, demanded various strongholds including Dunbar, in return for sending troops. This was agreed at the Treaty of Haddington in 1548. It was agreed that the infant Mary would be sent to France to marry the Dauphin. Up to 10 000 French troops landed at Leith and a garrison of French took over Dunbar^viii.

Central to the French military campaign was the strengthening of existining Scottish strongholds and the construction of new ones in an attempt to counteract the effects of Somerset's own fort building policy. The French knew the significance of controling Aberlady Bay and how it could be used to land their ordnance or to hinder supplies to the English at Haddington^ix. They set about fortifying and modernising existing strongholds at Leith, Millhaven, Inchgarvie and the castles at Blackness and Stirling, while constructing new ones at Inveresk, Inchkeith, and Luffness^x. The French commander de Thermes was sent to Luffness castle in 1549 to built fortifications^xi.

When the Franco-Scottish force arrived in Haddington in June 1548 and assembled batteries around the town the English in the fort now faced being besieged. They fought on but were in hostile territory and found it more difficult to resupply the fort. This was partly due to the seige and partly due to what was happening in England and France. War in France and Scotland was draining the finances of England and a rebellion closer to home meant that Somerset the victor of the Battle of Pinkie was removed from his position as Protector; he would eventually be executed. The fort at Haddington held out until September 1549 but with increasing disease and starvation it had to be abandoned^xii.

The treaty of Boulogne in 1550 finally saw England and France make peace. The French also insisted that England would cease hostilities in Scotland. The terms for peace between Scotland and England were concluded in the Treaty of Norham in 1551, where England agreed to abandon it's position in Scotland^xiii.

Treaty

The treaties of Boulogne and Norham made England give up her strongholds in Scotland. Now that peace reigned in Scotland (although under a French Kings authority) Henri of France sought to reduce his expenditure^xiv.

As part of the cost saving exercise the Privy Council of Scotland proposed that certain forts be demolished Luffness being one of them:

'With a view to “sparing the King's expense in tyme of pece”, the Privy Council proposed that the forts at Inchcolm, Inchgarvie, Broughty(Balgillo), Montrose and Luffness (Aberlady) also be demolished.'^xv.

I think it is important that there is no confusion between the term 'castle' and 'fort' so that we do not infer that the Privy Council is suggesting that Luffness castle be demolished. I believe at this point in time it already was in a reduced state. I take the opinion that when they say 'fort' they mean the defensive structures that had been built or strengthened in the recent years. Take for example the other two forts then are mentioned here; Montrose and Broughty. Both of these had castles but Montrose was in ruins in 1488^xvi and Broughty didn't fall into decay until the 17^th century^xvii, so they could not be meaning the castles but the forts that had been built near or around them.

Thus the fort at Luffness was proably removed at this time as part of a cost saving exercise.

Some detail of this can be found in a historical report on Aberlady in which the author describes the end of the fort thus:

'In 1552 was ordained by the council that “the said fort of Aberlady [was] to be randerit and deliverit to Patrik Hepburne of Wauchtoun” so that it could be destroyed. The houses and mansion were not to be pulled down, and were instead to remain in Hepburn’s hands in the same manner as his forbears had held the same. Hepburn was charged with delivering the artillery and munitions which were in the fort to Dunbar.'^xviii.

Conclusion

I have laid out a story of the medieval castle of Luffness from the begining to it's destruction in the 16^th century. This I beleive occurred at some point between 1547 and the 1550s. As a medieval castle it had survived through the main castle building period but it was now a technology which was being surpassed by greater fire power and a new European approach to fort building.

Patrick Hepburn built the present tower house in the late 16th century to reflect the change in circumstances and and fashion in archietecture^{xix xx}.

References

i The Oxford Companion to British History (1 rev ed.), John Cannon

Publisher:Oxford University Press. Published to Oxford Reference: 2009. Current Online Version:2009 eISBN: 97801995676

ii Inventory of Historic Battlefields

http://www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/battleofpinkie.pdf

iii The following letters can be found at: Edward VI: June 1548, Calendar of State Papers, Scotland: volume 1: 1547-63, Joseph Bain (editor), in British History Online, http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=43992&strquery=Haddington (accessed 17 June 2013).

iv 236. Grey of Wilton to Somerset. [June 4. 1548.]

v240. Grey of Wilton to Somerset. [June 9. 1548.]

vi262. Memorial for Thomas Fisher. [June 27. 1548.]

vii 251. Grey of Wilton to Somerset. [June 19.]

viii Castle Park, Dunbar: Two Thousand Years On A Fortified Headland, David Perry. Society of Antiquaries Of Scotland Monograph series: Number 16. ISBN 0 903903 14 8. Page 13.

ix 267. Grey of Wilton to Somerset. [June 30. 1548.]

x Mary of Guise in Scotland, 1548 – 1560: A Political Career, Pamela E. Ritchie, 2002, ISBN: 1 86232 184 1. Page 27.

xi http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/55031/details/luffness+house/

xii Mary of Guise in Scotland, 1548 – 1560: A Political Career, Pamela E. Ritchie, 2002, ISBN: 1 86232 184 1. Page 28.

xiii Mary of Guise in Scotland, 1548 – 1560: A Political Career, Pamela E. Ritchie, 2002, ISBN: 1 86232 184 1. Page 59.

xiv Potter (1984). II Documents concerning the Negotiation of the Anglo-French Treaty of March 1550. Camden Fourth Series, 29, pp 58-180. doi:10.1017/S0068690500001392.

xv Register of The Privy Council, I, pp. 90, 119

Quoted in Mary Of Guise in Scotland, 1548-1560, Pamela Ritchie, 2002,: page 39.

ISBN 1 86232 184 1

xvi http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/36242/details/montrose+fort+hill/

xvii http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/33391/details/dundee+broughty+ferry+broughty+castle/

xviii Historical report on Aberlady, Prepared by History Tomorrow (University of Stirling) for CFA Archaeology Ltd

xix http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/55029/details/luffness+house/

xx http://www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/sc-6551-luffness-house-with-east-wing-stables-and-

Luffness: Chapter 4

The Iron Age

The Scottish Iron Age has traditionally been defined as lasting from 700 BC to 500 AD and merges into the Early Historicⁱ. There is a lot of debate about when it finished, that is to say, do you include the Romans, the Vikings or go right up to the medieval period. I don't think entering into this debate will add anything to this piece, so for our purpose these dates will suffice.

So, what defines this period from the Bronze Age? The main distinction is the introduction of new technologies and materials; most notably iron. This period also saw the introduction of the rotary quern, the lathe, the potters wheel and the first widespread use of glassⁱⁱ.

RCAHMS SITE NUMBER	LOCATION OF FIND	SITE TYPE
NT47NE 25	Luffness Mains	BARROW(S) (POSSIBLE), LINEAR FEATURE(S), RIG AND FURROW, SETTLEMENT
NT47NE 43	Luffness Mains	ENCLOSURE
NT47NE 72	Luffness Mains	SETTLEMENT, UNENCLOSED SETTLEMENT
NT48SE 56	Gullane	CAULDRON (COPPER)(IRON AGE)
NT48SE 18	Gullane, Seton Court	ROTARY QUERN
NT48SE 26	Gullane	COIN (ROMAN)
NT48SE 25	Gullane Golf Course	COIN (ROMAN)
NT48SE 85	Aberlady	BROOCH(S) (ROMAN)
NT48SE 24	Gala Law	UNIDENTIFIED POTTERY (ROMAN)

Table 1: Iron Age finds in the Luffness area

Now let us look at what physical evidence has been found in the Luffness area that relates to life in this time period.

Small finds dated to the Iron Age period (Table 1) include a pottery sherd on Gala Law (NT48SE 32 and 53) and a bronze cauldron (NT48SE 56) which is thought to have had an iron rim (illustration 1). The cauldron is dated to between 100 BC and 200 AD. and is in the National Museum of Scotland (NMS)ⁱⁱⁱ.

Illustration 1: These pieces of a bronze vessel or small cauldron were found at Gullane in East Lothian. Such cauldrons were expensive and prestigious items, presumably used in feasts given by important leaders. The pieces are made of sheet bronze. Remains of rivet holes are visible at the top, where the rim would have been attached. On cauldrons of this type, the rims were usually of iron. Feasting was one form of conspicuous consumption, designed to show off the power, wealth and status of the giver. Some cauldrons were also buried as gifts to the gods, probably symbolic of food and feasting.

A bone spindle whorl (illustration 2)^iv found at Gullane and dated to between 200 BC and 200 AD was not a prestigious item like the axeheads or feasting vessel but it was a necessary one. It also shows that iron or even metal had not replaced all the old technologies.

Illustration 2: Pictured here are stone spindle whorls from Cairnconan in Angus and Freswick Sand in Caithness, a bone example from Muirfield in East Lothian and a ceramic example from Coalhill in Ayrshire. They were used between 200 BC and 200 AD.The spindle whorls are of different shapes, but all have central perforations where the wool was tied on. The top example, from Freswick Sands has seven small cup-like depressions on one face and six on the other. Spindle whorls were hung at the end of wool, to act as a flywheel as it was spun into yarn using a spindle. They occur in a range of shapes and materials, as illustrated here. Spindle whorls are often the only evidence preserved of spinning.

Even when there are no small finds, Iron Age Luffness can reveal itself in other ways.

Illustration 3: RCAHMS Aerial Photography Luffness Mains, oblique aerial view, taken from the NE, centred on the cropmarks of a square enclosure. SC624577 Copyright RCAHMS . The wide dark linear mark is the old railway track bed.

The remains of settlements can appear as areas of contrasting colours of the soil; soil marks, or in a field of crops; crop marks. Luckily these crop marks are best seen in areas where cereals are grown, such as East Lothian^v. In fact with the introduction of aerial photography an extensive array of settlements in East Lothian, that had not been recognised before, have been revealed to us. Most of these can be dated to 1000 BC to 500 AD^vi. Crop marks can be seen at Luffness mains (NT47NE 25, 43 and 72) which show features that are associated with settlements. There are a number of crop mark sites that provide evidence of prehistoric settlements in the form of enclosed and unenclosed settlement (NT47NE 72) and a ring ditch (NT47NE 25 and 43) (illustration 3 and 4).

Illustration 4: RCAHMS Aerial Photography Luffness Mains, oblique aerial view, taken from the W, centred on cropmarks of a settlement enclosure and unenclosed settlement traces. SC1250821 Copyright

These sites are indicative of Iron Age settlement but there has been no definitive dating evidence. Two archaeological evaluation digs were carried out in the near vicinity. One of which found pottery that appeared to be from the later prehistoric period and a small amount of iron slag^vii. The presence of iron slag would mean it could date to no earlier than the Iron Age but it could be later, because the people of East Lothain were still using enclosures in the first millennium AD^viii. This lack of finds may in itself be an indicator of the date of settlement activity. If the activity was early prehistoric it is likely there may have been more domestic debris, such as flint and pottery.

The other dig at Luffness Mains^ix interpreted all the features they discovered to be ditches, furrows or drains relating to post-medieval land use. Although this dig didn't find any Iron Age evidence, what it did do was to show us a continuity of agricultural land use. The land of East Lothian is famous for its farm land, which has provided food for the masses near and far. It was this ability to provide that allowed the people of East Lothian to form a complex and rewarding relationship with the first literate civilisation that they met; the Romans.

There is a school of thought that the people of Scotland were all bumbling about in the dark until the Romans came and turned the lights on. However, what we have seen in the previous chapters shows that this was not the case. What is not in dispute is that with the Romans came the written record.

The Romans came to Scotland in 79 AD lead by the general and governor of Britain; Agricola. He was the father in law of the historian Tacitus, who wrote about Agricola's campaigns. The Romans had a presence in Scotland intermittently until they left Britain in 410 AD^x. Apart from a few coin finds there is no evidence of Roman activities in Luffness. However there is a lot of evidence for a special relationship that was centred around Traprain Law; which is famous for its hoard of Roman silver that was found there in 1919^{xi xii}.

Why did Traprain Law become so prominent in the Roman period?

The site has tended to be seen as the fortified Iron Age capital of the Votadini. The Votadini were a tribe whose territory was south-east Scotland and north-east England. The upper strata of the Votadini society enjoyed a special relationship with Rome and had access to high quality Roman goods. The fact that the Romans allowed the Votadini capital at Traprain to survive suggests that the natives were not considered a threat. It has been suggested that a lack of Roman marching camps and military installations in the agricultural landscape of East Lothian suggests that the Votadini had allied themselves with Rome and may even have been, at certain times, a buffer state on the edge of the Empire^xiii.

Perhaps the relationship was not just as a buffer to northern tribes but that the local populous could provide the food needed to keep the Roman armies on campaign north of the Fourth. I must add that this is conjecture on my behalf and many academics are still trying to answer the question of why Traprain became so prominent in the Roman period^xiv.

So what happened when the Romans left?

Did they turn the lights out and leave every one to grovel about in the dark?

When the Romans left, life and society were undoubtedly changed and it is this change that we will investigate in the next period; the Early Historic or Dark Ages.

i http://tinyurl.com/d24fbpr (Page 10)

ii http://tinyurl.com/d24fbpr (Page 43)

iii http://nms.scran.ac.uk/database/record.php?usi=000-100-326-058-C&scache=4q0kg2uti8&searchdb=scran

iv http://nms.scran.ac.uk/database/record.php?usi=000-100-040-677-C&scache=1q1172uti4&searchdb=scran

v http://tinyurl.com/d24fbpr (Page 19)

viThe New Penguin History of Scotland: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day
edited by: R. A. Houston, W. W. J. Knox
London, Allen Lane, The Penguin Press in association with the National Museums of Scotland, 2001, ISBN: 9780713991871 Page 15.

viihttp://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archsearch/record.jsf?titleId=1951105

August 2010, Page 5.

viii http://tinyurl.com/d24fbpr (Page 76)

ixhttp://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archsearch/record.jsf?titleId=1947689

xhttp://www.historic-scotland.gov.uk/roman-scotland.pdf

xihttp://www.nms.ac.uk/collections__research/early_historic_scotland/traprain_law_dish.aspx

xiihttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-21244147

xiii http://www.archaeologyuk.org/ba/ba57/feat1.html

xiv http://tinyurl.com/d24fbpr   

The History of Luffness: Chapter 1

The Geology of Luffness and the Surrounding Area

Let us consider a simplistic model of the landscape. In this model there are three layers one on top of the other. People have used the lower two levels for many reasons, but it is the upper most layer that man has had the greatest influence on. This surface layer contains a visible record of man's occupation. Here we may find traces of passed civilisation, from the ghost of an ancient village revealing itself as a crop mark, to the solid concrete of a disused airfield. Here on the surface we live among our built environment, streets, field systems, golf courses, woods and all the nameless bits between them all. However, it is never quite this simple because what was on the surface one thousand years ago may now be buried in the next layer down.

The next layer down is what geologists may call the 'superficial deposits' or 'overburden'. This layer contains the soil on which life at the upper surface depends. Most soilⁱ consists of a mixture of disintegrated rock and some organic remains. The mineral content of the soil usually comes from the process of weathering and erosion in which the elements wear down the exposed bedrock.

The bed rock is the third and lowest layer in our model. This strata formed first, and often determines the nature of the overlying two layers. 

The bedrock of the Luffness area

Now let us look at how and when the earliest rocks in the Luffness area were formed. We need to go back to a time before man, back to a time even before the dinosaurs, in fact we have to go back to 350 million years ago to the Carboniferous period. At this time the land that would become Scotland was situated over the equatorⁱⁱ. The area was dominated by tropical forests; whose buried remains would go onto form the Scottish coal fields. The land that would form East Lothian was a flat coastal plain, clothed by forests, dotted with lagoons and crossed by meandering rivers flowing into deltas at the edge of a sea to the north eastⁱⁱⁱ.

This landscape was punctuated by volcanic activity. Magma was forced up through the crust to erupt onto the surface. Once on the surface the magma formed lava flows and gradually formed a cone around the volcanic crater. This was the time when the volcanoes that would produce The Bass Rock and North Berwick Law were active.

If we look at a map of the underlying bedrock (illustration 1)^iv we can see that about one third of the area is made up of a volcanic rock called Trachyte^v, which is thought to have been formed by the crystallization and abstraction of iron, magnesium, and calcium minerals from a parent basaltic lava. Basalt^vi is the Earth's most abundant bedrock. It was formed when the lava cools quickly on the surface to form a rock of a fine grained texture. If the molten magma was trapped within the Earth's crust it cooled slowly to form a coarse grained rock of of variable composition called Gabbro^vii.

One feature formed by magma that never made it to the surface is a sill. A sill forms when the magma is forced sideways through the layers of strata, forcing them apart and then solidifying. An example of a sill can be seen (illustration 2) at Gullane Point^viii.

Illustration 2: British Geological Survey. © NERC. All rights reserved. Image digitised with Grant-in-Aid from SCRAN (Scottish Cultural Resources Access Network)

The British Geological Survey describes it thus:

'The dolerite sill, technically a teschenite, is intruded into the Carboniferous Calciferous Sandstone Measures. As this igneous rock is much harder than the overlying and underlying sedimentary rocks it has withstood erosion better and so now forms a headland.''^ix.

The non volcanic rocks of the area are principally the sedimentary rocks; sandstone, mudstone and siltstone. These rocks differ in the size of grains they are formed from. Limestone is another sedimentary rock that forms Aberlady Point. Limestone was formed from the remains of coral reefs and marine sediments produced by the tropical seas of the Carboniferous period^x.

Now that we have looked at the underlying bedrock we will move up the strata to the next layer; the superficial deposits (illustration 3)^xi. To understand how they formed we need to realise that during much of the past two million years, East Lothian was buried under an ice sheet many hundreds of metres thick^xii. As the enormous weight of this ice bore down on the crust it caused the underlying more viscose mantle material to flow outwards away from the force, which in turn allowed the crust to sink. The ice sheet was not static but flowed west to east across the county. As it did it picked up boulders and fine rock dust which slowly eroded the underlying features. This ice flow carved valleys in an east west orientation and revealed rock formations from the lower layers. The glaciers scoured the volcanoes grinding their cones down to the more resistant rock. It is this resistant rock that forms the remaining plugs that we see today. As well as being an eroding process the ice sheet deposited large amounts of material to form a new uncolonised landscape. These deposits of silt sand and clay have developed over millennia into some of the richest farmland in Britain.

The ice melted for the last time in East Lothian about 14 000 to 16 000^xiii years ago and the sea level rose. With the sea came beaches, but the sea volume dropped and the land was elevated due to post glacial rebound. This is the return flow of the mantle material once the deforming weight of the ice has been removed. Very slowly the crust rises over thousands of years until it reaches an equilibrium level. This level is has not been reached yet but the rate may be less than quoted for Dunbar at a rate of 55mm a year^xiv, which sounds rather extraordinary. Whatever the rate, this still left the beaches stranded from the sea that formed them. This gives us the feature known as a raised beach. A raised beach can be seen on the flank of Gala Law at about eight metres above the present sea level, in what now forms part of Luffness Links.

The predominant overlying geology of this area are the wind blown sands. Along the coast the sands and silts of the beaches are light enough to be readily carried along in the wind, particularly where exposed and dry in the intertidal zone. Onshore movement of sand has produced sand dunes, which became stabilized by plants. Characteristic vegetation communities developed on the sand dunes and dune slacks but, as the shoreline has continued to move towards the sea, the older inland plant communities have developed from sand dependent and salt-tolerant communities into more uniform grassland communities^xv. The raised beach terraces are home to the naturally occurring fine grass species such as Festuca rubra and it is these grasses which make this coast so suitable for the establishment of many fine golf courses.

Having said that, it would be many years before any golf courses were formed. The land as we leave it after the ice melted was uninhabited and would pass through many years before the first people colonised it. It is the evidence of these first people that we examine in the next chapter.

References

iAberlady Bay Local Nature Reserve, Descriptive Management Plan, East Lothian District Council, 1977.

The full details of the soil survey are included in the plan in Section 6, on page 15 and in drawing 4. I have included these in Appendix A.

iiEast Lothian and the Borders:A Landscape Fashioned by Geology. 1997. Scottish Natural Heritage: page 17.

iiiEast Lothian and the Borders:A Landscape Fashioned by Geology. 1997. Scottish Natural Heritage: page 4.

ivMap product: British Geological Survey 1:50000. Map printed at 1:25000. Digimap.edina.ac.uk/geologyroam/mapper

v http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/601494/trachyte

vi http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/54604/basalt

vii http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/223075/gabbro

viiiEast Lothian and the Borders:A Landscape Fashioned by Geology. 1997. Scottish Natural Heritage: page 7.

ixDigimap.edina.ac.uk/geologyroam/mapper

xEast Lothian and the Borders:A Landscape Fashioned by Geology. 1997. Scottish Natural Heritage: page 17.

xiMap product: British Geological Survey 1:50000. Map printed at 1:25000. Digimap.edina.ac.uk/geologyroam/mapper

xiiEast Lothian and the Borders:A Landscape Fashioned by Geology. 1997. Scottish Natural Heritage: page 18.

xiii Lambeck K, 1995: Late Devensian and Holocene shorelines of the British Isles and North Sea from models of glacio-hydro-isostatic rebound,Journal of the Geological Society-London, Vol. 152, 1995, pp. 437–448

xivMoffat A., 2005, Before Scotland: The story of Scotland Before History, ISBN. 0500005133X, Page. 30.

xvRoger P. Kirby (1997): The Aberlady Bay coastal landforms and vegetation communities, Scottish

Geographical Magazine, 113:2, 121-126